Key Messages
| 1. Recognise the urgency to take immediate action to address the losses and damages suffered by workers in South and Southeast Asia. Approximately half of the region’s workforce is employed in informal sectors, and are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. 2. Prioritise gender-responsive measures to tackle the disproportionate climate change impacts on women. Women aged 15 and above constitute around 26% and 60% of the workforce in South and Southeast Asia respectively, with a significant portion employed in climate-vulnerable informal sectors. 3. Consider the climate impacts suffered by socially vulnerable groups and implement targeted interventions. 4. Recognise the predicted increase in both internal and external migration due to climate change which make migrants more susceptible to the vulnerabilities within the social and environmental contexts of their new location. 5. Ensure the establishment of robust social protection systems in South and Southeast Asian countries to address the impacts of climate change. Many countries in the region lack adequate mechanisms to safeguard low-skilled and low-wage workers from climate-induced losses and damages. |
The International Labor Organization (ILO, 2018) emphasises that over half of the workforce in Asia and the Pacific relies on informal sectors (See Figure 1) which is highly susceptible to climate change impacts. Low-skilled laborers with limited bargaining power, engaged in heavy labor in both indoor and outdoor hot environments, are particularly vulnerable (Schulte et al., 2016). Especially in South and Southeast Asian economies, global warming significantly impacts workers’ income, occupational health, productivity, and mental health (Vattakuzhy, 2023).
Dividing the workers into two groups, indoor and outdoor, this policy brief reveals vulnerabilities faced by low-skilled laborers in agriculture, construction, and formal sectors such as health and aid providers (UNFCCC, n.d.). The concept of Loss and Damage (L&D) acknowledges that climate-induced losses are unavoidable but overlooks the specific burdens borne by these laborers (Broberg, 2020). This concerning knowledge gap highlights the urgent need to address the disproportionate losses and damages primarily through a human rights approach to strengthen climate justice.
This policy brief focuses on examining the impacts of climate change on workers across the following sectors: agriculture, factory, textile, mining, and construction, and briefly includes the formal sectors such as health and aid providers in seven countries in South and Southeast Asia: Indonesia, Laos, Nepal, the Philippines, Timor-Leste, Vietnam, and India. Our focus countries were carefully selected to encompass a diverse range of geographical features, socio-economic vulnerabilities, and climate hazards.
This brief aims to synthesise documented evidence on losses and damages experienced by workers and explore ways to ensure justice for them in the actively unfolding climate L&D policy debate, both within and outside the UNFCCC domain. Through our review, we have identified five critical issues that demand urgent attention to effectively address the impact of climate-induced loss and damage on workers in South and Southeast Asia.
Key issues faced by the workers
Climate change impacts on workers are intensifying, with global warming expected to reach 1.5°C over pre-industrial levels by the 2030s, creating considerable difficulties for the Asia and the Pacific region ( Hicks, 2021). Additionally, as per the Swiss Re Institute’s Climate Economics Index, of 2021, stressed that economies in South and Southeast Asia are most susceptible to the physical risks associated with global warming. Notably, severe temperatures are responsible for around five million additional fatalities worldwide each year, with Asia bearing the brunt of this toll (Wu et al., 2022). A multitude of climate hazards, including sea level rise, heat waves, typhoons, landslides, and droughts create uncertain working conditions that impact workers’ income, occupational health, productivity, life and food security, and mental health (Vattakuzhy, 2023). Drawing from literature and case studies from South and Southeast Asian countries, the following key issues have been identified.
1.The impact of increasing climate threats on workers’ occupational health risks
Epidemiological findings from various nations indicate that extreme heat is linked to an elevated risk of occupational injuries, with conditions like heat exhaustion, heat stroke, chronic kidney disease, and chemical poisoning being more prevalent in the WHO’s Southeast Asia Region (Kjellstrom et al., 2017). Beyond the immediate impact of heat, climate change introduces additional threats, including exposure to pathogens, infectious diseases, and wildfires (Juda, 2017).
Workers across both informal and formal sectors are contend with unsafe environments, facing diverse hazards (Chakradhar & Mahadev, 2023). Outdoor workers in industries such as mining, construction, transportation, and agriculture, endure not only heavier workloads (86.7%) but also prolonged exposure to heat (41.9%) compared to their indoor counterparts (Venugopal et al., 2021). Inadequate cooling measures in their workspaces exacerbate their susceptibility to rising temperatures. Even within indoor workplaces due to lacking air conditioning, factory workers are not immune to heat-related risks despite their limited exposure to direct sunlight radiation. Excessive industrial heat has been associated with dyslipidaemia, cardiovascular issues, and digestive diseases (Xiang et al., 2014). This risk intensifies on hot working days with heavy machinery further elevating internal temperatures.
Building on these challenges, Bennett and McMichael’s study underscores the enduring effects of climate-induced disasters on emergency aid and health workers. The continuous exposure to climate-related hazards poses ongoing challenges in caring for the injured, ill, and displaced. This persistent exposure to traumatic situations may leave these workers physically and emotionally drained, limiting their effectiveness during subsequent disasters (Khammissa et al., 2022; WHO, n.d.).
Table 1: Occupational Health risk in different sectors
| Sector/ Occupation | Climate-Related Occupational Health Risks | Examples |
| Outdoor Workers (Mining, Construction, Transportation, Agriculture) | Increased risk of heat-related illnesses such as heat strokes, dehydration. Longer working hours in extreme heat conditions. Lack of cooling infrastructures. | Construction worker in India: “Because of heat, sometimes I don’t go to work. I take days off… many times, fall sick from dehydration…” (Reuters, 202) Female brick workers in West Bengal, India: Experienced elevated heart rate on hot days. (Acharya et al., 2018) |
| Smallholder Farmers | Harsh climatic conditions, lack of financial or political support. Food and nutritional insecurity, exposure to animal and insect attacks. | The future of food and agriculture-trends and challenges (Talukder et al., 2021). |
| Informal Sector Workers | Lack of job contract, social security, or paid leave. Barely earning subsistence wages. Forced to choose between covering medical expenses and working despite health conditions. | Quote from an Indian worker: “I work in the chips factory from 9am-6pm… Factory work is hot too.” (Agarwal et al., 2022) |
| Sherpa Community (Himalayan Region) | Shift from snowfall to rainfall increases the frequency of risks of wet-snow avalanches threatening the livelihoods of Sherpa guides. | Studies from the University of Geneva, Switzerland: Increased frequency of snow avalanches. (Ballesteros-Cánovas et al., 2018) |
| Mining Sector | Target-based job demands relentless labor. Poor ventilation, exposure to noise, dust, humidity, and radiation. Additional hazards from extreme weather events (e.g., landslides). | Miner from North Sumatra Province, Indonesia: “The biggest risk at a mine is indeed a landslide, fortunately, that has never happened to me.” (Al-Jazeera, 2022) |
| Transportation Sector | Risks from extreme weather events (storms, floods). Increased health risks due to high exposure to fumes from vehicles. Higher incidence of respiratory illnesses. | Study in Hanoi, Vietnam: High Black Carbon concentration in motorcycles and buses. (Quang et al., 2021) |
| Healthcare Workers | Frequent exposure to climate hazards. Challenges caring for those affected by disasters. Mental health challenges (stress, burnout, trauma, depression, moral injury). | Gaps in the healthcare system highlighted during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. (Søvold et al., 2021) |
The table 1 above shows occupational health risks across different sectors and countries due to climate change. In conclusion, there are numerous and significant effects of growing climate threats on the risks to workers’ occupational health. Workers in various sectors confront enormous obstacles in preserving their health and safety, from increased risks of heat-related illnesses to the aggravation of current hazards and the long-term effects of climate-induced disasters. There is also a possibility of seeing a surge in cases related to the effect of climate change on a worker’s mental health. To effectively address these issues, comprehensive steps must be taken.
2. Due to persistent intersectional vulnerability, specific groups, marginalized due to multiple social factors such as race, gender, and socio-economic status are disproportionately affected by climate change impacts.
Inequalities are prevalent in Asia, often perpetuated by social and institutional structures, allowing differential access to resources and opportunities (ESCAP, 2018). In a region vulnerable to disasters and climate-related extremes, these inequalities cause a disproportionate impact on different groups such as women, poor, and the “lower caste”, making them more vulnerable (UN Women, 2022; Oxfam, n.d.).
About 26% and 60% of women aged 15 and above in South and Southeast Asia are engaged in work, with over half of them working in vulnerable informal sectors (SPF & Dalberg, 2019; World Bank, n.d.). In the informal sector, women are disproportionately burdened with tasks like fetching water, overlooking the impact of climate change on them as employees (IIED, 2022). The women have to travel long distances to collect resources, increasing exposure to gender-based violence (UNFCCC, 2022). This can be further illustrated by the case of a female factory worker in Indore, India:
“It is my and my daughter’s responsibility to fetch water from the borewell. In summers when there is a lot of crowds, I become late owing to fetching water … The [factory] manager gets angry and sometimes deducts my wages.” — Geeta, factory worker, Indore (Agarwal et al., 2022).
Further, women suffer from extreme heat, as shown in the case study in the table above regarding construction and female brick workers in India. Even the Clinton Global Initiative and Atlantic Council in COP 28 (resilience hub) raised concerns about the gendered impacts of extreme heat and the need to rethink the insurance industry (Hojnacki, 2023).
Coupled with existing poverty and lack of social protection for informal workers often leads to poor working conditions, particularly for women (Cassirer & Addati, n.d.; Handayani, 2016). For instance, pregnant women in all sectors often hide their pregnancy or work regular hours, for fear of losing their jobs and source of income, which they cannot afford to do (UNICEF & ILO, 2022).
Moreover, wage gaps persist, even when women are a significant part of the workforce (Sahay, 2023). For instance, in Nepal, women are paid less than men in the industrial sector, both inside and outside the industrial area (Hoffmann, 2022). The Caste-based social structures in South Asia, compound vulnerabilities to climate change impacts leading to both economic and Non-Economic Loss and Damage (NELD).
At least 70% of farmers in India’s agriculture sector are classified as “scheduled castes,” the lowest caste, with a large number of them being landless and small farmers who face severe consequences of extreme weather events compared to land-owning farmers (Khan , 2023). Most of them suffered from loss of production leading to unpaid debt. Climate hazards contribute to the growing suicide epidemic in India, with over 59,000 suicides attributed to climate change over the last three decades (Carleton, 2017).
Coastal communities in South and Southeast Asia are also affected by climate variability, disrupting activities vital for their sustenance (Prakash et al, 2022). Especially for farmers and fishing communities, notably women, residing in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta, are struggling to sustain their livelihood due to changes in weather patterns as well as development activities (Vietnam News. 2023). The water levels now rise more slowly and recede more quickly, resulting in a dwindling fish resource. While previously the Mekong River would surge and flow south every seventh month of the lunar calendar, bringing with it rich alluvium and an abundance of fish and prawns to southern Vietnam (Tuoi Tre, 2021).
Addressing climate change vulnerability requires considering socio-economic composition, gender, and caste-based discrimination to create effective safety nets. Every group is affected differently with its own set of challenges which needs collective response and comprehensive policies that acknowledge these intersecting factors.
3. Climate change is driving migration, which is exacerbating the vulnerability of migrant workers
Climate change-induced migration is amplifying the vulnerability of migrant workers, particularly in Asia where the region experiences a disproportionate amount of climate-related displacement compared to others. As the impacts of climate change intensify, the number of people displaced by disasters is expected to increase (IFRC 2020). Climate change is expected to drive both internal and external migration, leaving migrants more vulnerable to the social and climatic contexts of their new surroundings.
Seasonal migration is prevalent in Southeast Asia, with lower caste and Adivasi (Tribal) individuals at greater risk due to inadequate cooling and recovery facilities at their workplaces and homes. According to ILO, the housing standard or migrant workers in Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand is poor, with workers living in homes without cooling or in high humidity (ILO, 2022).
In India, labor migrants work in specific subsectors, such as construction, transportation, mining and quarrying, and agriculture (Abbas & Varma, 2014). An estimated 40% of Indians are projected to move to urban areas to escape climate impacts. The impact is not limited to the seven countries, but a similar trend is observed in other countries in the region like Bangladesh:
“Every day 2,000 people move to Dhaka, 70% of them due to natural disasters and climate change. The city is struggling to cope with the pressure of the migrants,” Atiqul Islam, mayor of Dhaka North City Corporation, Source: The Third Pole, 2023.
Southeast Asia may see an increase in cross-border movements due to climate change, with Vietnamese and Indonesians migrating to Malaysia, Cambodians and Laotians to Thailand, Burmese to Thailand and Malaysia, and The Filipinos to various destinations across the region (Elliott & S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, 2012).
In the case of Nepal, increasing uncertainty in weather patterns and a warming climate exacerbates outmigration in rural areas (Arslan et al., 2021). However, even during the years with good rainfall and increased agricultural income, there is a surge in migration to India (Adhikari et al., 2023).
In the Middle East, Nepalese and Indian migrants suffer dire consequences with dozens of young men dying from heart attacks triggered by heat stress (Arslan et al., 2021). It is crucial to observe patterns and reasons for migration in each country to ensure a safe working environment that accounts for changing climatic conditions.
4. There is a lack of social protection for workers leaving them unprotected from the increasing climate impacts
While almost all Southeast Asian countries have some form of social protection policy, they lack a proper coherent climate framework. Table 2 below provides an analysis of the current social protection policies in the region.
The current workers’ protection laws in the region do not provide adequate working hours, there is no monthly scheme providing sufficient funds to compensate for the lost wages. Low-income and low-skilled workers, already suffering from economic inequality, are bearing the brunt of rising heat stress, experiencing decreased earnings without compensation for climate-induced health hazards (Welle, 2021). In the agriculture sector, farmers face problems like loss of crops due to climate change which is further increased by inadequate policy implementation. For example, in India assessment of crop damage occurs at the coverage against the loss and damage suffered by low-wage and low-skilled workers. The laws must provide adequate coverage against the loss and damage suffered by low-wage and low-skilled workers. The existing workers’ protection laws lack a separate budget to address loss and damage. Despite the observed loss of block level, disregarding individual farmers’ losses, leading to disparities in compensation distribution (Singh Gill, 2015). The compensation data often includes only landowners, excluding tenants or cultivators affected by the loss.
5. Insufficient climate-induced loss and damage data and analysis focusing on workers
Understanding how workers are affected by climate change is crucial, especially given the diverse effects across industries. There is a shortage of information regarding the mental health implications of climate change on workers, particularly in high-risk professions like frontline workers (Cianconi et al., 2020).
Despite the IPCC classifying South and Southeast Asia as highly vulnerable, there are few thorough studies examining the effects of climate change on workers in this region. Research has focused on economic and infrastructure issues rather than worker-related issues. Hence, there is a need for well-informed interventions and support systems formed through adequate data collection and analysis.
Table 2: Social Protection Policy in different countries
| S.N | Country | Policy | Benefit | Challenges |
| 1. | Timor-Leste | No specific mention of social protection policies. | N/A | 66% of families rely on farming and there is a 10% drop in labor productivity during peak months due to global warming, affecting agricultural output and income. |
| 2. | Laos | Employment and Employee Benefits Law. | Covers vulnerability to increasing temperatures. | Excludes independent contractors, leaving certain workers unprotected. Labor Law provisions do not apply to low-paid workers without a contract. Lack of a separate budget for existing workers’ protection laws for loss and damage. |
| 3. | India | Crop loss compensation policy | Entitles farmers to compensation for crop loss due to natural disasters. | Policy does not fully cover support small-scale farmers. Do not consider farmers who rent agricultural land Decline in coverage in India’s flagship crop insurance scheme. |
| 4. | Indonesia | Per-acre compensation policy for farmers. | Supports crop loss compensation | Exclusion in accommodating farmers’ financing costs which includes unpaid micro-loans and its interests to support crop results in higher micro-loan risl |
| Health Insurance schemes for informal workers with a minimum payment. | Provides health insurance for informal workers | Individuals in the sample faced challenges in continuing to avail the scheme due to uncertain income and changing needs. | ||
| 5. | Nepal | Social security schemes | Social security provides medical, health, maternity, accidental disability, and old-age benefits | Recent launch makes it difficult to assess the effectiveness of the schemes and benefits received. |
Protecting workers from climate-induced losses and damages
Under a warming climate, workers in South and Southeast Asia will become more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, as many of them are employed in industries that are highly exposed to climate-related hazards. Low-skilled workers will be particularly at risk. Failure to urgently address these issues could lead to not only a significant loss of lives but also considerable economic repercussions due to reduced worker productivity.
Urgent policy interventions are crucial to adequately protect workers from the adverse impacts of climate change, which will also require funding for adequate policy implementation. Several actions can be taken which include the following:
1. Adequate policy intervention at the national and international level
Bilateral agreements between countries should provide essential cover for migrant workers as well as have proper social protection policies for domestic workers to make them less vulnerable to climate hazards.
2. Linking socio-economic factors with climate change impacts
Grouping workers based on socio-economic status should help in identifying the most vulnerable groups and tailoring inclusive policies to address their specific needs for better policy implementation across various economic sectors. The social protection schemes should also incorporate an L&D perspective to strengthen the social safety net.
3. Improving monitoring of workspace and accountability towards low-paid workers
It is critical to build appropriate work settings that limit vulnerability to climatic threats. Establishing effective workplace supervision mechanisms is essential to ensure that workers are not abused and that businesses are held accountable to the government to produce optimal working conditions.
4. Implementing strict laws against negligence by employers
There must be proper regulations to establish strict safety procedures, offer precise instructions for preventing climate-related impacts on the workers and enforce heavy fines for infractions. The employer must ensure that buildings are fit to protect workers from heat tolerance and must have basic water and sanitation facilities.
5. Deploying early warning system
Setting up a reliable early warning system to track instances of extreme heat is essential. Because employees are more vulnerable to workplace risks during these times, it is critical to put policies in place that lessen working hours in exchange for money or employers must offer temporary relief from the effects of heat exhaustion, e.g. constructing cooling centres. This improves productivity and resilience to climate-related challenges, while also protecting the health and well-being of workers.
6. Ensuring the availability of sufficient data
To close the gap between policy and actual conditions on the ground, more thorough investigation and data gathering are needed. This includes information on the effects of climate change, worker access to policies, NELD data, and data on worker economic effects. Information gathered from various groups can help create better policies.
7. Providing agriculture insurance to compensate for crop loss due to slow onset and extreme weather events
Provide agriculture insurance policies to farmers, especially low-income farmers, to safeguard their livelihoods against the risk of climate-induced disasters. Weather index-based parametric insurance schemes for farmers should be introduced that payouts farmers when predefined weather parameters, like rainfall or temperature, meet certain thresholds rather than actual crop loss assessment.
8. Providing healthcare and mental health support to the workers affected by climate change events
Provide/ enhance healthcare service systems to address the health impacts of climate change on workers, including increased exposure to heat stress, vector-borne diseases, and respiratory illnesses, and provide mental health support and counselling services to workers affected by climate-related disasters. These steps can only minimize the effect but not eliminate the existing problem of loss and damage completely until discussions on the international forum are collectively implemented by the countries.
Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this report are of the authors, and do not reflect the positions and views of the organisations with which the authors are associated, or those of the publishers. The authors and publishers do not assume and hereby disclaim any liability to any party for any loss, damage, or disruption caused by any errors or omissions or any other cause associated with this report.
Acknowledgment We would like to express our gratitude to Dr. Sharan KC and Mr. Ajay Adhikari for their review and valuable feedback, which enhanced the content of this policy brief.
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